APPENDIX I

TRADITIONS CONCERNING THE ORIGIN OF THE VEDAS

THE painstaking research of Dr. John Muir has made the theories of the origin of the Vedas contained in the Sacred Books of the Hinduism accessible to every student. They are set forth with the Sanskrit passages on which they are founded or in which they are expressed in the third volume of his Original Sanskrit Texts. It is impossible to discuss all these theories here, or to quote all the passage bearing on them. A careful selection of the most important is all that can be attempted here.

Traditions in the Hymns

There are comparatively few statements in the Vedas that give any hint of the history of the writers of the Vedic Hymns or of the conditions in which their ancestors had entered into and settled in north-west India. But the name of the author of each Hymn is preserved in the Anukramanī or index to the contents of each Veda which has been handed down from very ancient times. The defenders of the eternity of the Vedic Hymns argue that these rishis were not and do not really claim to be the authors of the Hymns which are said to be their words (Muir, Sanskrit Texts, III. 85)

but that they merely repeated the Hymns and other parts of the Vedas that they had ‘seen’. Consideration of the words of the rishis will, however, show that they distinctly speak of themselves as the authors of the Hymns, without any reference to any supernatural inspiration; and that they uttered the Hymns before an artificial dogma had as yet begun to assign a mysterious divinity to the Hymns to secure sanctions for the elaborate system of priestcraft described in the Brāhmanas.

Dr. Muir has arranged the sayings of the rishis in which they claim to be actual authors of the Hymns in three classes, according to the Sanskrit verb which used to express the idea. These verbs are three:

Kri, to make Taksh, to fabricate Jan, to beget, generate or produce.

The verb Kri is very frequently used. Its meaning is to do, to make, to manufacture, prepare, work at, build, construct or compose, and the rishis used it in this sense of the Hymns that they had composed. There is no suggestion that they considered that they were merely repeating what had existed from eternity in the minds of the Gods.

Four examples may be given.

Kanvāso vām brahma krinvanti adhvare teshhām su śrinutam havam |

‘The Kanvas make a prayer to you: hear well their invocation.’

Rig-veda i. 47, 2.

Evā te hariyojanā suvrikti Indra brahmāni Gotamāsah akran |

‘Thus O Indra, yoker of steeds, have the Gotamas made hymns for thee efficaciously.’

Rig-veda i. 61. 16.

Etani vām Aśvinā vardhanani brahma stomam Gritsamadasah akran |

‘These magnifying prayers, [this] hymn, O Aśvins, the Gritsamadas have made for you.’

Rig-veda ii. 39. 8.

Adha priyam śusham Indrāya manma brahmakrito Vrihadukthād avāchi |

‘An acceptable and powerful hymn has been uttered to Indra by Vrihaduktha, maker of hymns.’

Rig-veda x. 54. 6.

The verb Taksh is less common. It means to form by cutting, or by the plane or chisel; to chop, slice, fashion out of wood as a carpenter does, and so to form in the mind or invent. Takshaka and Takshan (Tassan in Tamil) are two Sanskrit names for a carpenter. From this it will be seen that by using this verb the rishi thinks of himself as the inventor or maker of the Hymns that he utters just as the carpenter is the maker of a cart or a plough. There is here again no suggestion of the later tradition.

Two passages will be sufficient as examples.

Sanāyate Gotamah Indra navyam atakshad brahma hariyojanāya ityadi |

‘Nodhas, descendant of Gotama, fashioned this new hymn for [thee] Indra.’

Rig-veda i. 62. 13.

Etam te stomam tuvi-jāta vipro ratham na dhirah svapah ataksham |

‘I, a sage, have fabricated this hymn for thee, O powerful [deity], as a skilful workman fashions a car.’

Rig-veda v. 2. 11.

The verb Jan means to generate or beget and there are many passages in which the rishis used this simile. However later tradition may interpret the phrase it indicates that the vedic poets fully believed that they themselves were the authors of the Hymns that they sang. There is no need to quote many passages.

Navam nu stomam Agnaye divah śyenāya jijanam vasvah | kuvid vanāti nah |

‘I have generated a new hymn to Agni, the falcon of the sky; will he not bestow on us wealth in abundance?’

Rig-veda vii. 15. 4.

Suvriktim Indrāya brahma janayanta viprah |

‘The sages generated an efficacious production and a prayer for Indra.’

Rig-veda vii. 31. 11.

Asmai te pratiharyate Jātavedo vicharshane Agne janāmi sushtutim |

‘Wise Agni Jātavedas, I generate a hymn for thee who receivest it with favour.’

Rig-veda viii. 43. 2.

Other verbs are used with similar import to convey the idea that the rishi is the maker of the Hymn.

Asmai id u stomam samhinomi ratham na tashta iva ityadi |

‘To him (Indra) I send forth a hymn, as a carpenter a car.’

Rig-veda i. 61. 4.

The following passage shows most clearly that the authors of the Hymns recognized the part that their own minds played in the composition of Hymns.

Imam stomam arhate Jātavadase ratham iva sam mahema manishayā | bhadrā hi nah pramatir asya samsadi Agne sakhye mā rishāma vayam tava |

‘Let us with our intellect construct (or, send forth) like a car, this hymn for the adorable Jātavedas, for his wisdom is favourable to us in the assembly. Agni in thy friendship may we never suffer.’

Rig-veda i. 94. 1.

The idea that the hymns were altogether their own work seems however always foreign to the rishis. Some hymns ask for or acknowledge divine assistance just as poets of all nations often do. One poet says:

Indra mrila mahyam jīvātum ichcha chodāya dhiyam ayaso na dhāram | Yat kincha aham tvāyur idam vadāmi taj jushasva kridhi mā devavantam |

‘O God (Indra), have mercy, give me my daily bread; sharpen my mind, like the edge of an iron instrument. Whatever I now may utter, longing for thee, do thou accept it; give me divine protection.’

Rig-veda vi. 47. 10.

Direct divine inspiration is asserted.

Sa pratnathā Kavi-vridha Indro vākasya vakshanīh |

‘Indra was of old the promoter of the poet, and the augmenter of the song.’

Rig-veda viii. 52. 4.

From these, and from many other passages it may fairly be reasoned that at the time when the Hymns were composed their authors while considering themselves as rendering service specially pleasing to the Gods by composing Hymns, certainly considered those Hymns to be their own work.

One notable text in the Rig-veda which refers to the creation of the Vedas occurs in the Tenth Book in the well known Ninetieth Hymn called the Purusa Sukta. The Tenth Book is generally believed to contain Hymns of much later date than the preceding Books so that there is reason to doubt whether a tradition in the Purusa Sukta is to be taken as of very ancient authority. Professor Macdonell says it is one of the very latest poems of the Rigvedic age; for it presupposes a knowledge of the three Vedas, to which it refers by their names, and it also mentions the four castes. It describes the creation of the universe by the gods out of the body of a primeval giant with a thousand heads. ‘The act of creation is treated as a sacrificial rite, the original man being conceived as a victim, the parts of which when cut up become portions of the universe. His head, we are told, became the sky, his navel the air, his feet the earth, while from his mind sprang the Moon, from his eye the Sun, from his breath the wind’.¹

The Hymn has been quoted in full on pages 165-6. The verse that relates to the origin of the Vedas states that the Rig, Sama and Yajur Vedas were born from the sacrifice. It does not mention the Atharva-veda.

Tasmad yajnāt sarvā-hatah richah sāmani jajnire | chandāmsi jajnire tasmād yajus tasmād ajayata |

‘From that universal sacrifice were born the Rich and Saman verses: the metres were born from it: the Yajush was created.’

Rig-veda x. 90. 9.

New and Old Hymns

Dr. Muir quotes more than fifty passages to show that the authors of the Vedic hymns themselves recognized that some hymns were new and some were old. This alone proves that the tradition of the eternity of these hymns had no place in the thought of the Vedic poets themselves. It will be sufficient to quote one or two of these verses. The rishis believed that the Gods would be better pleased if their praises were celebrated in new, and perhaps more elaborate compositions, than if older and possibly ruder, prayers had been repeated.

Sa nah stavanah abhara gāyatrena navīyasā | rayim viravātim isham |

‘Glorified by our newest hymn, do thou bring to us wealth and food with progeny.’

Rig-veda i. 12. 11.

Tan pūrvaya nivida humahe vayam Bhagam Mitran Aditim Dakshan Asridham ityadi |

‘We invoke with an ancient hymn Bhaga Mitra, Aditi, Daksha, Asridh.’

Rig-veda i. 89. 3.

Yah purvyabhir uta nutanabhir girbhir vavridhe grinatam rishinam |

‘He (Indra) who grew though the ancient and modern hymns of lauding rishis.’

Rig-veda vi. 44. 13.

A sakhayah subardugham dhenum ajadhvam upcr navyasa vachah |

‘Friends, drive hither the milch cow with a new hymn.’

Rig-veda vi. 48. 11.

Nu navyase naviyase suktaya sadhaya pathah | pratna-vad rochaya ruchah |

‘Prepare (O Soma) the paths for our newest, most recent hymn; and, as of old, cause the lights to shine.’

Rig-veda ix. 9. 8.

Traditions in the Atharva-veda

Several traditions find expression in the hymns of the Atharva-veda.

i. The seventh hymn of the tenth mandala of the Atharva-veda in a somewhat similar way to the Purusa Sukta of the Rig-veda identifies Skambha with the universe and describes all things as derived from him. All four vedas are mentioned in it.

Yasmad richo apatakshan yajur yasmad apakashan | samani yasya lomani atharvangiraso mukham | Skambham tarn bruhi katamah svid eva sah |

‘Declare who is that Skambha from whom they cut off the Rich verses, from whom they scraped off the Yajush, of whom the Saman verses are the hairs, and the verses of the Atharvan and the Angiras the mouth.’

Atharva-veda x. 7. 20.

ii. The seventh hymn of the eleventh mandala of the Atharva-veda is a glorification of Uchchhishta, the ‘residue of sacrifice.’ It states that the Vedas sprung from the ‘Leavings of Sacrifice.’

Richah samani chhandamsi puranam yajusha saha | Uchchhishtaj jajnire sarva divi devah divisritah |

‘From the leavings of the sacrifice sprung the Rich and Saman verses, the metres, the Purana with the Yajush, and all the gods who dwell in the sky.’

Atharva-veda xi. 7. 24.

iii. Another tradition in the same Veda says that the Vedas sprung from Indra, and he sprung from them.

Sa vai rigbhyo ajayata tasmad richo ajayanta |

‘Indra sprung from the Rich verses; the Rich verses sprung from him.’

Atharva-veda xiii. 4. 38.

iv. A verse in a later book states that the Vedas sprung from Time.

Kalad richah sambhavan yajuh kalad ajayata |

‘From Time the Rich verses sprung; the Yajush sprung from Time.’

Atharva-veda xix. 54. 3.

Traditions in the Brahmanas

It is impossible to say definitely at what dates the various Brahmanas were composed. Both they and the Atharva-veda belong to the same period and both are much later than the Rig-veda. The period when the Brahmanas were composed may however with some reason be said to end about 600 B.C., but, of course, they contain traditions earlier than that date.

i. The Taittiriya Brahmana closely connected with the text of the Black (Krishna) Yajur-veda, is one of the earliest Brahmanas, while the Satapatha Brahmana is of later date, perhaps one of the latest of them.² One or two quotations from them will show the character of the beliefs concerning the origin of the Vedas that had become current during the Brahmanic period and that were embodied in and endorsed by them.

ii. Two passages may be cited from the Taittiriya Brahmana. The first is a eulogy of Vach, the goddess of speech. She is declared to be the mother of the Vedas.

Vag aksharam prathamaja ritasya vedanam mata amritasya nabhih | sa no jushana upa yajnam agad avantl devl suhava me astu | yam rishayo mantra-krito manishinah anvaichhan devas tapasa sramena |

‘Vach is an imperishable thing and the first-born of the ceremonial, the mother of the Vedas, and the centre-point of immortality. Delighting in us, she came to the sacrifice. May the protecting goddess be ready to listen to my invocation—she whom the wise rishis, the composers of hymns, the gods, sought by austere fervour and by laborious devotion.’

Taittiriya Brahmana ii. 8. 8. 5.

iii. The other passage is an example of the grotesque symbolism that surprises the reader of the Sacred Books. It states that the Vedas are the hair of Prajapati’s beard.

Prajapater vai etani smasrilni yad vedah |

Taittiriya Brahmana iii. 3. 9. 1.

iv. Of the two passages quoted here from the later Satapatha Brahmana, the first is interesting for the figure of speech and for its assertion that the Vedas were dug from the mind-ocean by the labour of the gods, the devas, who are not of supreme rank. In the other passage the Vedas are called the breathings of the Great Being and classed with works like the sutras which are generally considered to be merely human compositions (paurusheya) without independent authority.

Mano vai samudrah manaso vai samudrad vacha ‘bhrya devas trayim vidhyam nirakhanan. |

‘Mind is the Ocean. From the mind-ocean, with speech for a shovel, the gods dug out the triple Vedic science.’

Satapatha Brahmana vii. 5. 2. 52.

Sa yatha ardredhagner abhyahitat prithag dhumah vinischaranti evam vai are ‘sya mahato bhutasya nisvasitam etad yad rigvedo yajurvedah samavedo ’tharvangirasah itihasah puranam vidya upanishadah slokdh sutrany anuvyakhyanani vyakhyanani asyaiva etani sarvani nisvasitani |

‘As from a fire made of moist wood various modifications of smoke proceed, so is the breathing of this Great Being the Rig-veda, the Yajur-veda, the Sama-veda, the Atharvangirasas, the Itihasas, Puranas, Science, the Upanishads, Slokas, aphorisms, comments of different kinds—all these are his breathings.’

Satapatha Brahmana xiv. 5. 4. 10.

Traditions in the Upanishads

The earlier Upanishads were composed approximately between 600 and 480 B.C. The teaching in them is generally philosophic. The traditions of the past are used to illustrate metaphysical ideas, and are repeated as symbolic of esoteric truth. Thus in the Chhandogya Upanishad Prajapati is said to have produced the three Vedas through the fire, the wind and the light of the sun.

Prajapatir lokan abhyatapat | tesham tapyamananam rasan prabrihad agnim prithivyah vayum anta rikshad adityam divah | sa etas tisro devatah abhyatapat | tasam tapyamananam rasan prabrihad agner richo vayor yajumshi sama adityat | sa etam trayim vidyam abhyatapat | tasyas tapyamanayah rasan prabrihad bhur iti rigbhyo bhuvar iti yajurbhyah svar iti samabhyah |

‘Prajapati infused warmth into the worlds, and from them so heated he drew forth their essences, viz. Agni (fire) from the earth, Vayu (wind) from the air, and Surya (the sun) from the sky. He infused warmth into these three deities, and from them so heated he drew forth their essences, from Agni the Rich verses, from Vayu the Yajush verses, and from Surya the Saman verses. He then infused heat into this triple science and from it so heated he drew forth its essences, from Rich verses the syllable bhuh, from Yajush verses, bhuvah, and from Saman verses svar.’

Chhandogya Upanishad iv. 17. 1, 3.

Manu’s account

Manu assigns the same origin to the Vedas in his account of creation.

Sarvesham tu sa namani karmani cha prithak prithak | Veda-sabdebhya evadau prithak samsthas cha nirmame | karmatmanam cha devanam so ‘srijat praninam prabhuh | sadhyanam cha ganam sukshmam yajnam chaiva sanatanam | Agni-vayu-ravibhyas tu trayam brahma sanatanam | dudoha yajna-siddhyartham rig-yajuh-sama-lakshanam |

‘He (Brahma) in the beginning fashioned from the words of the Veda the several names, functions and separate conditions of all [creatures]. That Lord also created the subtile host of active and living deities, and of Sadhyas, and eternal sacrifice. And, in order to the performance of sacrifice, he drew forth from Agni, from Vayu, and from Surya, the triple eternal Veda, distinguished as Rich, Yajush and Saman.’

Manava dharma-sastra i. 26. 23.

The Mahabharata

Sarasvati may be said to have taken the place of Vach in later Hindu mythology, and the Mahabharata calls Sarasvati the mother of the Vedas.

Vedanam mataram pasya mat-stham demm Sarasvatlm |

‘Behold Sarasvati, mother of the Vedas, abiding in me.’

Mahabharata, Santi-parva 12. 920.

The Harivamsa

The Harivamsa, the nineteenth or supplementary book of the Mahabharata, gives a different tradition: The Gayatri, quoted on page 186, is the most famous of Hindu prayers. It is repeated to this day by every Brahman in India in his morning prayers. All kinds of mystic properties are ascribed to the Gayatri, and the Harivamsa contains a verse which states that the Vedas were produced from the Gayatri.

Tato ‘srijad vai tripadam gayatrtm veda-mataram | Akaroch chaiva chaturo vedan gayatri-sambhavan |

‘After framing the world, Brahma ’next created the Gayatri of three lines, mother of the Vedas, and also the four Vedas which sprung from the Gayatri.’

Harivamsa 11, 516.

Statements in the Puranas

The Puranas give different accounts of the origin of the Vedas, in harmony with later developments of Hinduism. For instance, in one passage the Vishnu Purana identifies the three Vedas, omitting the Atharva-veda, with Vishnu.

Sa riii-mayah sa samamayah sa chatma sa yajurmayah | rig-yajuh-sama-saratma sa evatma sarl-rinam |

‘He is composed of the Rich, of the Saman, of the Yajush; he is the soul, consisting of the essence of the Rich, Yajush and Saman, he is the soul of embodied spirits.’

Vishnu Purana iii. 3. 19.

On the other hand, the Bhagavata Purana says in one place that the Vedas issued from the mouth of Brahma the Creator.

Kadachid dhyayatah srashtur vedah asans chaturmukhat | katham srakshyamy aham lokan samavetan yathapura | . . . Rig-yajuh-sama-tharvakhyan vedan purvadibhir mukhaih | sastram ijyam stuti-stomam prayaschittam vyadhat kramat.

‘Once the Vedas sprung from the four-faced Creator, as he was meditating “how shall I create the aggregate

Footnotes

APPENDIX I

symbolic of esoteric truth. Thus in the Chhandogya Upanishad Prajapati is said to have produced the three Vedas through the fire, the wind and the light of the sun.

Prajāpatir lokān abhyatapat | teshām tapyamānānām rasān prābrihad agnim prithivyāh vāyum anta rikshād ādityam divah | sa etas tisro devatāh abhyatapat | tāsām tapyamānānām rasān prābrihad agner richo vāyor yajumshi sāma ādityāt | sa etam trayim vidyām abhyatapat | tasyās tapyamānayāh rasān prābrihad bhur iti rigbhyo bhuvar iti yajurbhyah svar iti sāmabhyah |

‘Prajāpati infused warmth into the worlds, and from them so heated he drew forth their essences, viz. Agni (fire) from the earth, Vāyu (wind) from the air, and Sūrya (the sun) from the sky. He infused warmth into these three deities, and from them so heated he drew forth their essences,—from Agni the Rich verses, from Vāyu the Yajush verses, and from Sūrya the Sāman verses. He then infused heat into this triple science and from it so heated he drew forth its essences,—from Rich verses the syllable bhūh, from Yajush verses, bhuva, and from Sāman verses svar.’

Chhandogya Upanishad iv. 17. 1, 3.

Manu’s account

Manu assigns the same origin to the Vedas in his account of creation.

Sarveshām tu sa nāmāni karmāni cha prithak prithak | Veda-śabdebhya evāday prithak samsthas cha nirmame | karmātmanam cha devānām so ‘srijat praninam prabhuh | sādhyānām cha ganam sūkshmam yajnam chaiva sanātanam | Agni-vāyu-ravibhyas tu trayam brahma sanātanam | dudoha yajna-siddhyartham rig-yajuh-sāma-lakshanam |

‘He (Brahma) in the beginning fashioned from the words of the Veda the several names, functions and separate conditions of all [creatures]. That Lord also created the subtile host of active and living deities, and of Sādhyas, and eternal sacrifice. And, in order to the performance of sacrifice, he drew forth from Agni, from Vāyu, and from Sūrya, the triple eternal Veda, distinguished as Rich, Yajush and Sāman.’

Manava dharma-sāstra i. 26. 23.

The Mahabharata

Sarasvati may be said to have taken the place of Vāch in later Hindu mythology, and the Mahābhārata calls Sarasvati the mother of the Vedas.

Vedanām mātaram pasya mat-stham devim Sarasvatlm |

Behold Sarasvati, mother of the Vedas, abiding in me.

Mahabharata, Sānti-parva 12. 920.

The Harivamsa

The Harivamsa, the nineteenth or supplementary book of the Mahābhārata, gives a different tradition: The Gāyatri, quoted on page 186, is the most famous of Hindu prayers. It is repeated to this day by every Brahman in India in his morning prayers. All kinds of mystic properties are ascribed to the Gāyatri, and the Harivamsa contains a verse which states that the Vedas were produced from the Gāyatri.

Tato ‘srijad vai tripadām gāyatrim veda-mātaram | Akaroch chaiva chaturo vedān gāyatri-sambhavan |

After framing the world, Brahmā ’next created the Gāyatri of three lines, mother of the Vedas, and also the four Vedas which sprung from the Gāyatri.’

Harivamsa 11, 516.

Statements in the Puranas

The Puranas give different accounts of the origin of the Vedas, in harmony with later developments of Hinduism. For instance, in one passage the Vishnu Purāna identifies the three Vedas, omitting the Atharvaveda, with Vishnu.

Sa rin-mayah sa sāmamayah sa chātmā sa yajurmayah | rig-yajuh-sāma-sārātmā sa evātma sari-rinam |

‘He is composed of the Rich, of the Sāman, of the Yajush; he is the soul, consisting of the essence of the Rich, Yajush and Sāman, he is the soul of embodied spirits.’

Vishnu Purana iii. 3. 19.

On the other hand, the Bhāgavata Purāna says in one place that the Vedas issued from the mouth of Brahmā the Creator.

Kadachid dhyāyatah srastur vedāh āsams chaturmukhat | katham srakshyāmy aham lokān samavetan yathāpura | . . . Rig-yajuh-sāma-tharvākhyān vedān pūrvādibhir mukhaih | sastram ijyām stuti-stomam prayaschittam vyadhat kramat.

‘Once the Vedas sprung from the four-faced Creator, as he was meditating “how shall I create the aggregate worlds as before?” . . . He formed from his eastern and other mouths the Vedas called Rich, Yajush, Saman and Atharvan, together with praise, sacrifice, hymns, and expiation.’

Bhāgavata Purāna iii. 12, 34 and 37.

The Vishnu Purāna (i. 5, 48ff) gives the same explanation, with details as to the particular mouth of Brahmā by which each Veda was uttered.

APPENDIX II

THE METRES OF THE VEDAS

While Greek Prosody makes the ‘foot’ the unit in its metrical systems, and while in later Sanskrit the quantity of every syllable in each line was fixed in all metres Vedic prosody is less formal. The Vedic ‘foot’ or ‘pāda’ like the foot of a quadruped, means a quarter-verse because the ordinary Vedic verse contains four lines.¹ A pāda may have eight, eleven or twelve syllables. The Rich is a stanza generally formed of three or four lines. There are altogether fifteen different metres, but only seven are at all common. As a rule the whole of one hymn is in the same metre throughout, but sometimes different parts of a hymn are in verses of different metres. One hymn in Book I contains verses in nine different metres. As regards quantity the first syllables of the line are not defined strictly, but generally, though not always, the last four syllables are of fixed length. In the eight and twelve syllable verses these syllables are iambic (short and long) and trochaic (long and short) in lines of eleven syllables.

Max Müller gives a list, according to Śaunaka, of the metres employed in the Rig-veda. The number of verses in which the principal occur are as follows:

Trishtubh, 4,253; Gāyatri, 2,451; Jagatī, 1,348; Anushtubh, 855; Ushnih, 341; Pankti, 312; various, 849; total, 10,409.

Ancient Sanskrit Literature p. 22.

Examples of one or two of the most common forms will be of interest to the student.

The Gayatri

This is a common metre, one-fourth of the Rig-veda being in this metre. It is so called because the Gāyatri, the most sacred text in the Vedas, is composed in it. It contains three lines of eight syllables. The first hymn is in this metre. The following is the first verse:

Agnimile purohitam Yajnasya devam rtvijam | Hotaram ratnadhātamam ||

Macdonell renders this verse in lines closely resembling the original,

‘I praise Agni, domestic priest, God, minister of sacrifice, Herald, most prodigal of wealth.’

Anushtubh

This contains four lines of eight syllables each, like the three lines of the Gāyatri. It is now generally called the Sloka, and in post Vedic times took the place of the Gāyatri. The following is an example:

Srushtivāno hi dāsushe Devah Ague vichetasah | Tan rohidāsva girvanas Trayastrimsatam ā vaha |

‘Agni, the wise gods lend an ear to their worshipper. God with the ruddy steeds, who lovest praise, bring hither those three and thirty.’

Rig-veda i. 45. 2.

Trishtubh

About two-fifths of the Rig-veda are composed in the Trishtubh metre. It consists of four lines of eleven syllables. The name means three steps, one short and two long. The following is an example:

Anārambhanetad avirayethām Anāsthāne agrabhane samudre | Yad aśvinā ūhnthur Bhujyum astām Satāritrām nāvam ātasthivāmsam |

‘Ye put forth your vigour in the ocean, which offers no stay, or standing-place, or support, when he bore Bhujyu to his home, standing on a ship propelled by a hundred oars.’

Rig-veda i. 116. 5.

Jagati

This metre of four twelve-syllable lines is said to ’express the idea of cattle. Any one who wishes for wealth in cattle must use it.’ Example:

Na tam rājanav adite kutas chana na Amho asnoti duritam nahir bhayam | Yam Asvina suhavā rudravarttam Puroratham krinuthah patnyā saha |

‘Neither distress, nor calamity, nor fear, O ye two kings, whom none may check or stay, from any quarter assails the man whom ye Asvins, swift to hear, along with (your) wife, cause to lead the van in his car.’

Rig-veda x. 39. 11.

The Aryan had a firm belief in the power of the rightly pronounced prayer to secure its aim. This appears in the way in which the gods are addressed in some of the hymns. It also underlies the worship of the goddess Vāch. As the more elaborate system of Brahmanical Hinduism arose a complete science of the mysterious values of the various metres used in the hymns was formulated.

In his introduction to that Brāhmanas Dr. Haug summarizes the teaching of the Brāhmanas on the subject. He points out that the power of the Hotri priest at a sacrifice lay in his being able to use the sacred words frequently personified by Vāch. The sacred words, pronounced rightly by the Hotri priest, effect, by the innate power of Vāch, the spiritual birth of the sacrificer, shape his body, secure heaven for him, cause him to live a hundred years, and procure him wealth and offspring, will slay his enemies and destroy the consequences of his sins. But pronounced against a man by the priest or his enemies words will curse him unless he finds other words more powerful to counteract the hostile spell. This influence lies mainly in the form or metre in which the given words are uttered; hence the importance of metre, terms and words. Each metre is specially influential in the securing of some particular boon.

The Gāyatri metre is the most sacred, and is the proper metre for Agni, the God of fire, and chaplain of the gods. It expresses the idea of Brahma: therefore the sacrificer must use it when he wishes anything closely connected with Brahma, such as acquirement of sacred knowledge, and the thorough understanding of all problems of theology. The Trishtubh expresses the idea of strength and royal power; thence it is the proper metre by which Indra, the king of the gods, is to be invoked. Any one wishing to obtain strength and royal power, especially a Kshattriya, must use it. A variety of it, the Ushnih metre of twenty-eight syllables, is to be employed by a sacrificer who aspires for longevity, for ’twenty-eight’ is the symbol of life. The Jagati expresses the idea of cattle. He who wishes for wealth in cattle, must use it. The same idea (or that of the sacrifice) is expressed by the Pankti metre (five times eight syllables). The Brihat, which consists of thirty-six syllables, is to be used when a sacrificer is aspiring to fame and renown; for this metre is the exponent of those ideas. The Anushtubh is the symbol of the celestial world; thence he who seeks a place in heaven should make his prayer in it. The Viraj, of thirty syllables, is food and satisfaction; thence one who wishes for abundance of food, must employ it.

Thus the Aitareya Brāhmana says:

‘He who wishes for long life, should use two verses in the Ushnih metre; for Ushnih is life. He who having such a knowledge uses two Ushnihs arrives at his full age (i. e. one hundred years).

‘He who desires heaven should use two Anushtubhs. There are sixty-four syllables in two Anushtubhs. Each of these three worlds (earth, air, and sky) contains twenty-one places, one rising above the other (just as the steps of a ladder). By twenty-one steps he ascends to each of these worlds severally; by taking the sixty-fourth step he stands firm in the celestial world. He who having such a knowledge uses two Anushtubhs gains a footing (in the celestial world).

‘He who desires strength should use two Trishtubhs. Trishtubh is strength, vigour, and sharpness of senses. He who knowing this, uses two Trishtubhs, becomes vigorous, endowed with sharp senses and strong.

‘He who desires cattle should use two Jagatīs. Cattle are Jagatī-like. He who knowing this uses two Jagatīs, becomes rich in cattle.’

APPENDIX III

VEDIC SANSKRIT

Whether the Vedic hymns present to us the language of the early Aryans as they actually used it in their daily speech, or whether it was a refined poetical dialect even in early days, as was classical Sanskrit assuredly in later times, there is not sufficient evidence to decide. Probably neither assertion is altogether true. Some of the hymns are nearer to the actual life of the people than others, more speculative, can be. In some there are what seem to be thoroughly colloquial expressions. Others are the carefully expressed utterances of thinkers who have followed generations of thinkers. On one point however, there can be no doubt.

Generally speaking the language of the Vedas represents a stage in which Sanskrit is still very like the language of the old Persian Avesta, a stage in which the Aryans of Iran and the Aryans of the Panjab have still much in common in their speech. And the language of the Indian Aryans is simpler, more direct, less trammelled by grammatical conventions than the Sanskrit of later days.

The subject has been carefully investigated by Sanskrit grammarians, both European and Indians. The greatest of Indian Sanskrit grammarians Pāṇini constantly recognizes differences between the ancient and the more modern dialects.

Muir² gives the following among other examples of the differences of Vedic from later Sanskrit:

Vedic Text

Vāyav āyāhi darśata ime somāh aranḳritāh | teśhām pāhi śrudhi havam||

Modern Sanskrit

Vāyav āyahi darśaniya ime somāh aranḳritāh— teśhām piba śrinu havam||

‘Come, O Vayu, these somas are prepared. Drink of them; hear our invocation.’

Rig-veda i. 2. 1.

Here it will be observed that four Vedic words darśata, aranḳritāh, pāhi, śrudhi, differ from the modern Sanskrit forms.

The student will also find it useful to consult P. Peterson’s Hymns from the Rig-veda, Bombay, 1900.

APPENDIX IV

THE CONTENTS OF THE RIG-VEDA

Ancient scholars most carefully enumerated in systematic indexes, called Anukramaṇis, the number of verses, the poets, the deities and the metres of every hymn in the Vedas. As early as about 600 B.C. every verse, every word, every syllable had been carefully counted. The number of verses in the Rig-veda varies from 10,402 to 10,622; that of the padas or words, is 153,826; that of the syllables, 432,000. In the ordinary recension of the Rig-veda, that of the Śākalas there are 1,017 hymns, with eleven supplementary hymns called Valakhilyas added to the Eighth Book. The recension of the Vāshkalas seems to have been the same as that of the Śākalas, but contained eight additional hymns, bringing up the total to 1,025.

Max Müller gives the following statistics for the Rig-veda from Saunaka’s Anukramaṇi:

MANDALA I

This is called the book of the Śatarchins, that is of a hundred or a large indefinite number of authors of verses. Of the hymns forty-four are specially addressed to Indra, forty-three to Agni, fifteen to the Aśvins, eleven to the Maruts, nine to the Viśvedevas, four each to Ushas and the Ribhus, three to Heaven and Earth, etc. Other hymns are addressed to gods conjointly, as Indra and Agni, Mitra and Varuna. Two hymns are addressed to the Horse, one is in praise of Food.

MANDALA II

This book contains only forty-three hymns. It is commonly called the Book of Gritsamada, as nearly all the hymns are ascribed to that Rishi. Fourteen of the hymns are addressed to Indra, two of them in the form of the Kapinjala, a kind of partridge, and nine to Agni.

MANDALA III

This book contains sixty-two hymns, ascribed to the rishi Viśvāmitra, or to members of his family. It is said that he was born a Kshatriya, but by virtue of his intense austerities he raised himself to the Brahman caste.

The rishis who wrote the hymns were not always friendly with one another. ‘Especially prominent,’ says Weber, ‘is the enmity between the families of Vasistha and Viśvāmitra, which runs through all Vedic antiquity, continues to play an important part in the epic, and is kept up to the latest times; so that, for example, a commentator of the Veda who claims to be descended from Vasistha, leaves passages unexpounded in which the latter is stated to have had a curse imprecated upon him.’

MANDALA IV

This book contains fifty-eight hymns. The first forty-one are ascribed to the rishi Vāmadeva, son of Gotama; so also are the last fourteen. Twelve are addressed specially to Indra, and eleven to Agni.

MANDALA V

This book contains eighty-seven hymns. Of these twenty-one are addressed to Agni, eleven to Mitra and Varuna, nine each to Indra, the Maruts and Viśvedevas, and six to the Aśvins.

MANDALA VI

The rishi of this book is Bharadvāja, to whom, with few exceptions, all the hymns are attributed. It contains seventy-five hymns. To Indra twenty-one hymns are addressed; to Agni, thirteen; to Pūshan, five; to the Viśvedevas, four.

MANDALA VII

All the hymns of this book are ascribed to the rishi Vasistha, with whom his sons are associated as the seers of parts of two hymns. There are 104 hymns; of which fourteen are addressed to Indra, thirteen to Agni, eight to the Aśvins, seven each to Ushas and the Viśvedevas, four to Varuna, and one to frogs. The prevailing metre is Trishtub.

MANDALA VIII

This book is by a variety of authors. It contains ninety-two hymns, with eleven called Valakhilya or supplementary hymns. Of the hymns thirty-six are addressed to Indra, eleven to Agni, five to the Viśvedevas, and three to the Maruts.

MANDALA IX

This book contains 114 hymns. Except one to the Āpris and two in which Soma is invoked conjointly, all the hymns are addressed to Soma. Even in the hymn to the Āpris the attributes of Agni are transferred to Soma. He is addressed as Pavamāna, representing the juice as it flows through the wool which was used to strain it and thus purify it. The hymns were intended to be sung while this process is going on. There are very many repetitions in the book.

MANDALA X

This book contains 191 hymns. To Indra thirty-four are addressed, to Agni twenty-five, to the Viśvedevas twenty-two. There are hymns on creation and several to be used as charms to cure sickness, to remove rivals, to prevent miscarriage, etc. The book includes some of the latest hymns in the Rig-veda. Several of the hymns are ascribed to gods, as if the real authors wished by this device to conceal their late origin.

APPENDIX V

CONTENTS OF THE SAMA-VEDA

It is not possible to present any summarised statement of the contents of the Sāma-veda as the hymns are arranged entirely for ritual purposes as they were to be chanted by the Udgātar priests at the Soma sacrifices and no order of subjects is observed. The text is divided into two parts, the first containing six books, the latter eight.

APPENDIX VI

THE CONTENTS OF THE YAJUR-VEDA

The White Yajur-veda, or collection of hymns for the use of the Adhvaryu priests, as given in the recension known as the White Yajur-veda, or Vajasaneya consists of forty books. Almost half are taken from the Rig-veda or Atharva-veda and are metrical. Nearly equal in quantity are the Yajus texts, or sacrificial formulae, composed in prose and long passages, such as the lists of victims to be dedicated at the Asvamedha and the Purusamedha which are in the simplest prose.

Books I and II contain the texts and formulae required at the New and Full Moon Sacrifices. Book III those for the morning and evening oblation of milk; Books IV-VIII those for Soma sacrifices in general; Books IX-X for Vajapeya or Cup of Victory and the Rajasuya or Inauguration of a king, two variations of the Soma sacrifice. Books XI-XVIII give formulae for the constructions of altars or hearths for the various sacrificial fires; Books XIX-XX those for the sacrifice instituted to expiate the evil effect of excessive soma drinking, the Sauterimani; Books XXII-XXV contain the formulae for the Asvamedha. Books XXVI-XXIX contain supplementary formulae for the sacrifices already dealt with.

Books XXX and XXXI treat of the Human sacrifice, the Purusamedha. Books XXXII-XXXIV deal with the Sarvamedha sacrifice for universal prosperity. Book XXXV contains chiefly formulae to be used at funeral ceremonies. Books XXXVI-XXXIX contain prayers and formulae to be used at the Pravargya ceremony, preliminary to the Soma sacrifice.

Book XL is a sort of Upanishad not connected directly with any sacrifice.

APPENDIX VII

THE CONTENTS OF THE ATHARVA-VEDA

The following extract from Griffith’s preface to his translation of the Atharva-veda will show the general contents of that Veda.

‘The Atharva-veda Sanhita or Collection’ is divided into twenty Kandas, Books or Sections, containing some 760 hymns and about 6,000 verses. In Books I-VII the hymns or pieces are arranged according to the number of their verses, without any reference to their subjects or the nature of their contents. The hymns of Book I contain on an average four verses each; those of Book II, five; those of III, six; those of IV, seven; those of V, from eight to eighteen; those of VI, three; those of VII, many single verses and upwards to eleven. Books VIII-XX contain longer pieces, some of which extend to fifty, sixty, seventy, and even eighty verses. In Books I-XIII the contents are of the most heterogeneous description with no attempt at any kind of systematic arrangement of subjects. They consist principally of prayers, formulas and charms for protection against evil spirits of all sorts and kinds, against sorcerers and sorceresses, diseases, snakes, and other noxious creatures, of benedictions and imprecations, invocations of magical herbs, prayers for children and long life, for general and special protection and prosperity, success in love, trade and gambling, together with formulas to be employed in all kinds of domestic occurrences. In books XIV-XVIII the subjects are systematically arranged; XIV treating of marriage ceremonies; XV of the glorification of the Vratya or religious wandering mendicant; XVI and XVII of certain conjurations; XVIII of funeral rites and the offering of obsequial cakes to the Manes or spirits of departed ancestors. Book XIX contains a somewhat miscellaneous collection of supplementary hymns. Book XX consists—with the exception of what is called the Kuntapa Section, comprising hymns 127-136—of pieces addressed to Indra and taken entirely from the Rig-veda. These two books, which are not noticed in the Atharva-veda Pratisakhya—a grammatical treatise on the phonetic changes of words in the text—are manifestly a later addition to the collection. Many of the Atharva hymns reappear in the Rig-veda, about one-seventh of the collection, sometimes unchanged and sometimes with important variations, being found in the older compilation. Interspersed in several of the books are pieces of varying length, consisting of curious cosmological and mystico-theological speculations which are not without interest as containing the germs of religious and philosophical doctrines afterwards fully developed in the Brahmanas and Upanishads.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barth. Religions of India. Trübner’s Oriental Series.

Bloomfield, Maurice. The Religion of the Veda. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1908.

The Hymns of the Atharva-veda (Sacred Books of the East), Oxford. 1897.

Deussen. Philosophy of the Upanishads. T. & T. Clark.

Dowson. Dictionary of Hindu Mythology. Trübner’s Oriental Series.

Dutt, R. C. History of Civilization in Ancient India. Trübner’s Oriental Series.

Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by Dr. Hastings, published by Messrs. T. & T. Clark.

Eggeling, Professor. Translation of the Satapatha Brahmana. (Sacred Books of the East.)

Farquhar, J. N. Primer of Hinduism. Christian Literature Society for India, Madras.

Griffith, R. T. H. The Hymns of the Rig-veda. Translated with a Popular Commentary. Lazarus & Co., Benares. Second edition with some corrections and other improvements in Text and Commentary of the original four volumes, in two volumes, crown octavo, cloth, Rs. 14 the 2 vols.

Griffith, R. T. H. The Hymns of the Sama-veda. Lazarus & Co., Benares. In one volume, second edition, Demy octavo, cloth, Rs. 4.

Griffith, R. T. H. The Hymns of the Atharva-veda. Lazarus & Co., Benares. In two royal octavo volumes, cloth, Rs. 12. Stiff paper covers, Rs. 10-8-0.

Griffith, R. T. H. The Yajur-veda (White.) Lazarus & Co., Benares. In one volume, crown octavo, cloth, Rs. 3-12-0.

Haug, Dr. Translation of the Aitareya Brahmana, Bombay.

Kaegi. Rig-veda. Ginn & Co.

Kunte, M. M. Vicissitudes of Aryan Civilization in India. Bombay.

Macdonald, K. S. Vedic Religion.

Macdonell, A. A. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Heinemann. First edition, 1900.

Macdonell, A. A. and Keith, A. B. A Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. Two volumes, John Murray, 1912.

Muller, Max. Ancient Sanskrit Literature.

Muller, Max. India: What can it Teach us. Longmans.

Muller, Max. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. Longmans.

Peterson, P. Hymns from the Rig-veda. Bombay, 1900.

Rajendralala Mitra. Indo-Aryans. 2 Vols. Newman, Calcutta.

Weber, Professor. History of Indian Literature. Trübner.

Whitney, Professor. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. Scribner.

Williams, Monier. Brahmanism and Hinduism. Murray.

Wilson, Professor H. H. Translation of the Rigveda Sanhita (Allen).

Wilson, Dr. J. India Three Thousand Years Ago, Bombay.

INDEX

A

ABORIGINES, 4, 6.

Adhvaryus, 28, 108.

Adi-purusa, 165.

Aditi, 88.

Adityas, 71, 88, 94; hymn to quoted, 175.

Afghanistan, 3, 155.

Agastya, 135.

Aghnyd, 97.

Agnayi, 90.

Agni, 200 hymns to, 51; account of, 80; and other gods, 83; and goddesses, 83; and demons, 83; passes away, 135, 161; forsakes Varuna, 161; hymns to quoted, 177, 178, 179.

Agriculture, 9.

Ahalya, 75.

Ahi, 182 n.

Aitareya-Brāhmana, 49, 263.

Aitaraya Upanishad, 37.

Akho, Gujerati poet, 124.

Altar, domestic, 11.

Amulets, 240.

Ancestor worship, 10, 88-103.

Angiras, 177 n.-235 n.

Annastuti hymn, 230.

Angirases, 96, 235.

Animal sacrifices, 113.

Anukramani, 244.

Apala, 14.

Apas (waters), 91.

Apastamba, 131.

Apsarases, 95, 242.

Arabs, 121.

Aranyakas, 25, 35, 36.

Aranyani, 91.

Arrow, 229.

Arundhati, 240.

Aryaman, 11; account of, 70.

Aryans: agriculture, 9; artisans, 7; astronomy, 17; cosmology, 17; crime, 14; and Dasyus, 6; father’s authority, 10; food, 7; home of, 4; houses, 7; king, 14; marriage, 10; medicine, 18; morality, 14; nomadic, 3, 6; polyandry, 11, 66; polygamy, 11, 234; prayers, 137ff.; religious beginnings, 18, 72, 79; sacrifices, 104ff.; trades, 9; war, 17; widows, 12; women, 13.

Aryas, 3.

Asat, 208.

Asclepiad plants and soma, 84.

Asoka, 42.

Asoka-tree, 103.

Asuras, 96, 139, 198, 225.

Astronomy, 17.

Aśvalayana Sutra, 114.

Aśvins: polyandry of eleven sons of Surya, 66; Vivasvat, 94; description of, 71; hymn to quoted, 180.

Asvamedha sacrifice, 118-121.

Atharvangirasah, 26.

Atharva-veda: analysis of, 274; hymn to drum, 6; editions and translations, 23ff.; composition, character and date, 30ff.; vaidikas, 43; on power of priest, 107; on power of mantra, 164; passages quoted:

• ii. 17 1-7 240.
• iii. 15 1-8 242.
• iii. 19 1-5 108.
• iv. 16 1-5 64.
• v. 22 1 etc. 239.
• vi. 130 1-4 242.
• x. 7 20 251.
• xi. 7 24 252.
• xii. 5 5-73 241.
• xiii. 3 3 61.
• xiii. 4 38 252.
• xviii. 2 2 101, 2 2 102.
• xix. 54 3 252.

Atri, 225.

Avesta, 3, 264.

B

BABYLON, 9.

Barbers, 9.

Benares, 24.

Benfey, 22, 79.

Bengal, 127.

Beschi, Constantine, 20.

Bezwada, 124.

Bhaga, 11.

Bhagavad-gita, 20.

Bhagavata, 137.

Bhagavata purana, 257.

Bhagavati, 7.

Bhakti, 170.

Bharadvaja, 41.

Bharatas, 225.

Bharati, 185.

Bhils, 4.

Bhrigus, 33; described, 79, 95.

Bhrigvangarasah, 32.

Bhūta, 136.

Bibliography, 276.

Bloomfield, Maurice: edits Atharva-veda, 23; Vedic concordance, 29; on writing in India, 42; date of Vedas, 46.

Bows and arrows, 17, 228.

Brahma, 52, 56, 78.

Brahmachariya, 44.

Brahman (neut.), 33, 136.

Brahman (Masc.), 18, 33, 82, 108-10; and cows, 240; and human sacrifice, 128, 135; divine power, 163; origin of, 166, 169.

Brāhmanas, 25, 34ff., 42; later date, 29, 46, 49; numbers of, 37; in prose, 36, 37; on animal sacrifice, 113, 114; on Brahman’s divinity and power, 163; see Aitareya, Satapatha, etc.

Brahma-veda, 33.

Brahmanaspati, 56, 92, 94.

Bread, 7.

Brihadaranyaka upanishad, 37.

Brihaspati, 17, 92, 94, 185.

Briton, 18, 121.

Buddha, 46, 171.

Buddhism, 46, 134, 137, 169.

Buffaloes, 9, 113.

Buhler, Dr., on writing, 42.

Butter, 7.

C

CAMELS, 9.

Canaanites, 121.

Carpenters, 9.

Carthaginians, 121.

Caste, four, 48; not in Aryan times, 157; origin of, 166, 170.

Cattle, 9; raids for, 17. See Cows, Meat.

Ceremonialism, 163, see Sacrifice.

Chaitra month, 131.

Chaldea, 31.

Chamasadhvaryu priest, 108.

Chamunda (Durga), 122.

Chandi (Durga), 122.

Chandika (Durga), 133.

Chariot, 17, 229.

Chariot race, 16.

Charms for disease, etc., 18.

Chhandogya upanishad, 37, 255.

Children, Position of, 10.

Christ, 171.

Chyavana, 71.

Colebrooke on Aryan meat-eating, 8; on Vedas, 21, 154.

Conch, 17.

Cosmogony, hymns, 205ff.

Cosmology, 17.

Cow eaten and sacrificed, 8, 113; hymn to, 240.

Cowell, E. B., 23.

Creation, hymns of, quoted, 205ff.

Crime, 14.

D

DAKSHA, 93.

Dancing, 16.

Darsanas, 42.

Dāsa (or Dasyu), 6, 17, 182ff.

Dasaratha, 119.

Dasyu, see Dasa.

Daughters not desired, 12.

David, 48.

Death (Mrityu), 87.

Deification: instance of, 103.

Dekkhan, 43.

Demons, 96.

Demon-worship: of Dasyus, 6, 96; in Atharva-veda, 30ff.; and worship of Rudra, 77-8; and sacrifice, 163ff.; of Malabar, 164; in Hinduism, 169.

Deva, 52.

Devas, see Gods, 52ff.

Devi, 122.

Devotion, way of, 170.

Dharapuram, 103.

Dharma-sutras, 25, 38.

Dice, 15, 227.

Dogs of Yama, 231.

Dravidians, 4, 136; demon worship of, 77, 164; worship ancestors, 99; human sacrifice, 122.

Drums, 16.

Dūhitri, milkmaid, 9.

Duhsvapnaghnam, 235.

Durga, 52, 78, 116, 122, 133; puja, 116.

Dvijanman, 81.

Dyaus, 52; Dyaus and Prithivi, 55, 62; account of, 62; parent of Agni, 81; passes away, 135; hymn to quoted, 181.

E

ECLIPSE, 225.

Egypt, 48.

Ekashtaka, mother of Indra, 73.

Elijah, 49.

Ethical ideas in Vedas, 160.

F

FATHER, authority of, 10.

Fathers (ancestors), see Pitri.

Fever, 240.

Fire by friction, 81.

Flamen and brahman, 107.

Floods, 50, 54.

Flour, 7.

Food, hymn to, 230.

Forgiveness, prayers for, 148.

Frazer, R.W., 78.

Frogs, hymn to, 222.

Funeral hymn quoted, 213.

Future life, 152.

G

GAMBLER, 226.

Gambling, 15; hymn on, 226.

Ganapati, 52.

Gandharvas, Vach and Soma, 86, 91; account of, 95.

Ganges, 4, 127, 141, 155.

Garuda Purana, 13.

Garutman, 61.

Gautama, 44, 75.

Gautama the Buddha, 134.

Gavisti, 17.

Gayatri, 67, 136, 185; and Soma, 86.

Gayatri metre, 260.

Ghi, 83, 105.

Ghoshā the leper maiden, 14, 180.

Ghrita, ghi, 105.

Goats, 9, 113.

Goddesses Vedic, 69, 90-1.

Gods, Vedic: nature of, 50ff.; devas, 52; ’the bright ones’, 53; number of, 53; dual gods, 54; collective, 55; origin of, 55; immortality of, 55; appearance, 56; character, 56; classification, 57; henotheism or kathenotheism, 59; similarity of attributes of many, 60; Agni, 80, 135; Aryaman, 70; Asvins, 71; Bhrigus, 79; Brahmanaspati, Brihaspati, 92; Dyaus, 62, 135; Indra, 72; Ka, 92; Kama, 93; Mitra, 65; Parjanya, 79; Prithivi, 88; Pūshan, 68; Ribhus, 94; Rudra, 76; Soma, 83; Surya, 65; Savitri, 66; Tvastri, 94; Ushas, 69; Varuna, 63, 135; Vata, Vayu, 72; Vishnu, 68; Visvakarman, 95; Visve devas, 93; Yama and Yami, 87.

Goghna, cow-killer, 8, 97.

Gold, 9.

Gonds, 4.

Gopa, cow-keeper, 9.

Gopatha-brahmana, 49, 117.

Go-sava, 115.

Gosuyudh, 17.

Gotama, 41.

Grantha, 42.

Grass, sacred, 190n.

Greece and Greeks, 10, 19, 48, 53, 121.

Griffith, R.T.H. Translations of Vedas, 24; on Atharva-veda, 31, 274.

Grihapati, 82.

Grihya Sutras, 25, 38, 114.

Gritsamada, 41.

Gujerati, 124.

Gujerati legend, 124.

Guru teaches Veda, 42.

H

HAOMA or Soma, 84.

Harihara, 55.

Harischandra, 128.

Harivamsa, 256.

Harrow, 9.

Haug on Vedic metre, 262.

Health, prayer for, 146.

Hebrews, 13; prayers of, 138; idea of holiness, 159.

Helios, 65.

Henotheism, 59.

Himalayas, 4, 7.

Hiranya-garbha, 89, 167.

Hoe, 9.

Homer, 229.

Horse, 9, 97, 229.

Horse-sacrifice, 118.

Hotra, 185.

Hotri, 27, 82; and Rig-veda, 109; and brāhmanas, 110; and sutras, 110.

House breakers spell, 231.

Human sacrifice, 121ff.

Hunting, 9.

I

ILIAD, 49.

Implements of sacrifice, 97.

India, Map of in Vedic age, 5.

Indra, 17, 40; 250 hymns to, 51; replaces Varuna, 52, 161; begets his parents, 56; account of, 72-76; a merchant, 241; and Vritra, 73; and Soma-juice, 85; hired out by Vāmadeva, 163; hymns to quoted, 182ff.

Indra = Satakratu, 16.

Indra’s words about women, 13.

Indrāni, 74, 91, 234.

Indu, 72, 193.

Indus, 4, 141.

Infants drowned in Ganges, 127.

Iran, 3.

Irrigation channels, 9.

Isaiah, 49.

Israel, 48.

Isvaara, 56, 78.

J

JAMADAGNI, 186.

Jamadagnya, 8.

Jamna river, 4, 41, 141.

Jan, 245.

Janaka, 8, 107.

Jatavedas, 180, 241.

Jesus, 170.

Jnana-marga, 170.

Jones, Sir William, 20.

Jumna river, 4, 41, 141.

Jupiter (planet), 92.

K

KA, 92; hymn to quoted, 168.

Kabulistan, 4.

Kaegi, 12.

Kakshivan, 180.

Kali, 52, 122; see Durga.

Kalighat, 122.

Kalika purana, 123.

Kalpa ceremonial, 38.

Kalpa = ‘day of Brahma’, 38.

Kama, 52, 93.

Kāmya isti, 114.

Kandama, 117.

Kapinjala, 184.

Karma, 158.

Kasyapa, 93.

Kathenotheism, 59.

Kausalya, 121.

Kaushitaki brahmana, 49.

Kaushitaki upanishad, 37.

Kena upanishad, 37.

Kingship, 14.

Kistvaens, 5.

Kona Irappa (a demon), 123.

Kri, 245.

Krishna, 52, 135, 137, 171.

Kshatriya: gambling, 15; raj rishi, 107; and human sacrifice, 131, 135; origin of, 166.

Kumarila, 45.

Kuru, 48, 119.

Kuruba tribe, 123.

Kurukshetra, 41.

Kurumayi, 122.

Kutsa, 183.

L

LAKSHMI, 52, 91.

Lanka, 95.

Levirate marriage, 13.

Linga, 6.

Lithuania, 79.

Love-charm, 242.

Love, way of, 170.

M

MACDONALD, Dr. K. S., on Brāhmanas, 35, 36.

Macdonell, Prof., on writing in India, 42; on date of vedas, 46; on influence of Brahmans, 163.

Madhava Acharya, 22.

Madura, 20.

Maghavan, ’liberal one’, 185.

Magic in Atharva-veda, 32, 35; magical mantras, 35; power of sacrifice, 163ff.

Mahabharata, 25; says Veda not to be written, 45; and horse-sacrifice, 119; origin of Veda, 256.

Mahadeva, 52, 77.

Mahakratu, 118.

Maha prasthana, self-sacrifice, 127.

Mahavira, 134.

Mahratta, 148.

Malabar, 164.

Mand, 9.

Manikka Vasaka, 148, 170.

Mantra, 25; defined, 34, 40, 137.

Mantra-kara, 107.

Manu, Law-book of, 25, 255; on human sacrifice, 135.

Manu the primeval, 202.

Mari, 122.

Margosa tree, 105.

Marriage, 10, see Aryans.

Martanda, 206.

Maruts: and Indra, 74; and Rudra, 76; described, 79; hymn to quoted, 187.

Mattock, 9.

Mavadiyal, 78.

Mavli (water sprites), 123.

Maya, 158.

Māyām, magic, 197.

Meat-eating, 7, 83, 97; ceases, 135.

‘Merchant Indra’, 241.

Merchant’s prayer, 241.

Mesopotamia, 42.

Metre, 259.

Milk, 7.

Mina of Babylon, 9.

Minos and Yama, 88.

Mitra, account of, 65; and Varuna, 65.

Mitravarunan, 55.

Mitra, Dr. Rajendralala: on Aryan meat-eating, 7, 8; on animal sacrifice, 113ff.; on human sacrifice, 126ff.

Moabites, 121.

Monism see Upanishads.

Morality, 14.

Mrityu (Death), 87.

Muir, Dr. John: edits Sanskrit texts, 23, see references in footnotes.

Mujavan, 227, 240.

Müller, Prof. Max: edits and translates Vedas, 22, 23; on writing in India, 42; describes instruction in Vedas, 44; date of Vedas, 45; on devas, 53; kathenotheism, 59; on Maruts, 79; orders and duties of priests, 108-110; on Vedic metre, 259; on analysis of Veda, 266ff.; on human sacrifice, 131.

Müradevah, 233.

Mysticism in Vedas, 160.

N

NAGA-LINGA, 97.

Nagas, 97.

Nalla pampu, 97.

Nami, 75.

Namuchi, 75.

Narabali, 122.

Nasatyas, 181 n., 190 n.

Nature-worship, 50.

Neem-tree, 105.

Nesta, 117.

Nirriti, 235.

Nirukta, 57.

Nobili, Robert de, 20.

Norsemen, 57, 62.

O

OGNI, 80.

Oldenberg, 23.

Om, 136.

Oral transmission of Veda, 42.

Ox sacrificed, 113.

P

PADDANATTU PILLAIYAR, 148, 170.

Paiichalas, 48.

Panchavimsa-brahmana, 49.

Pancha saradiya sava, 113, 116.

Pandava, 5.

Pandava-vidu, 5.

Panini, 265.

Panjab, 4, 8, 48.

Pantheism see Upanishads.

Parabrahma, 56.

Paraiyan, 99.

Parjanya, 145; and Soma, quoted, 188.

Parsis, 3.

Patria potestas, 10.

Patriarchal family, 10.

Pavamana, 85, 192.

Perkunas, 79.

Persia, 3, 10, 79, 84, 97.

Personality believed in, 158.

Pey, 96.

Pey-kovil, 78.

Phallic worship of Dasyus, 6.

Phoenicians, 42.

Pindas, 101.

Pipru, 182.

Pisachas, 96.

Pitri, 58, 136, 147, 184; service and worship of, 98-103; hymn to quoted, 212.

Pitriyajna, 101.

Plough, 9, 98.

Pluto and Yama, 88.

Polyandry, 11.

Polygamy, 11; account of, 79, 86; hymn to quoted, 188.

Polytheism, 50.

Prabhu, 56.

Prajapati, 52, 56, 78, 89, 93, 165, 167, 202, 206.

Prajapati’s sacrifice, 117.

Prana, 136.

Prani, 136.

Prayers, 137ff.

Prithivi, 52, 55, 62, 88; hymn to quoted, 181.

Prithivyai, 181.

Priyamedha, 41.

Priyavrata, 41.

Procreation, 10.

Prometheus, 81.

Prose Edda, 62.

Pūshan, 68; hymn to quoted, 189.

Puja, 116.

Puranas, 25, 42, 256.

Purohita, 107.

Purusa, 165.

Purusa-medha, 122.

Purusa-sukta, 165.

Puru-vasu, 41.

Pushkara, 41.

Pushti, 91.

Putana, 135.

Q

QUIVER, 229.

R

RAHU, 225.

Rain, prayer for, 145.

Rajanya, 166, v. Kshattriya.

Ragozin, Mme., 31.

Raja, 14.

Rajasuya, 115.

Rajendralala Mitra, see Mitra.

Rakshasas, 95, 96 ; spell against, 232.

Rama, 52, 119, 135, 171.

Ramanuja, 137.

Ramayana, 25 and horse-sacrifice, 119.

Rammohun Roy, Raja, 21.

Rasa, 167n.

Rauhina, 182.

Readings from the Veda, 175ff.

Ribhus, 79 account of, 94 hymn to quoted, 190.

Rich, ricah, 26, 34, 166.

Righteousness, see rita.

Rig-veda : editions, translation, 22ff pre-eminence of, 33 composite nature, 154 message of, 154 covers 700 years, 155 no theology, 157 analysis of, 266.

Rig-veda, Quotations from

BOOK I

BOOK II

BOOK III

BOOK IV

BOOK V

BOOK VI

BOOK VII

BOOK VIII

BOOK IX

BOOK X

Rita, 160ff, 177, 200, 203.

Ritvij, 82.

Rivers, 223. See Jamna, Ganges, Sutlej.

Rohita, 128.

Rosen, Friedrich, 21.

Rome, 49, 53, 121.

Roth, 23.

Rudra and Püshan, 68.

Rudra account of, 76-78 hymn to, quoted, 190.

Rudras, see Maruts, Vritra.

S

SACERDOTALISM, see Sacrifice.

Sacrifice recurring, 40 sacrifices of the Aryans, 104ff of human beings in modern times, 123ff efficency of, 163ff decline of sacrificial worship, 134.

Sacrificial instruments, 98, 111, 201.

Sadasya, 117.

Sadhyas, 166.

Sagalsha Seth, legend of, 124ff.

Sagar Isle, 127.

Saiva-siddhantin, 137.

Saivaism, 169. See Siva.

Sakalas, 42.

Sakti-worship, 91.

Sakuntala, 20.

Salt not mentioned in R.V., 8.

Samgni, 26.

Sama-veda editions and translations, 22ff composition of, 28, 87, 271 reading from, 236.

Sambara, 182.

Samhita, 25, 34.

Samitri priest, 108.

Samsara, 158.

Sanjña, 66.

Sanskrit, 20, 264.

Santals, 4.

Sapatnibadhanam, 234.

Sarama, 231f.

Saranyu the dawn, 87, 94.

Sarasvati (river), 4.

Sarasvati (goddess), 90-1.

Sarcostemma viminale (soma), 84.

Sarva-darsana-samgraha, 22.

Sastra, 42.

Satananda, 8.

Satapatha-brahmana, 33, 49, 119, 254 on human sacrifice, 132 on divinity of the Brahman, 164.

Satakratu = Indra, 16.

Satarchis, 41, 267.

Sati, 13, 127.

Saunaka, 259.

Savitar—Savitri, 11 ; described, 66, 67 hymn to, quoted, 191.

Savitri, see Gayatri.

Sayara Acharya, 22, 65, 66, 140, 163.

Scott, H. R., 124.

Schroeder, L. von, 23.

Se, see Dravidian root, 76.

Selaiya, legend of sacrifice of, 124ff.

Serpent-worship, 97.

Ships, 10.

Siksha, 109.

Sin in the veda, 149.

Sindhu, 4.

Sinivali, 140.

Siprin, 140.

Sisnah-devah, phallus-worshippers, 6.

Sita, 144.

Siva, etymology and meaning, 76, 78.

Siva, 6, 52, 135, 137, 171 trident of, 66 and Rudra, 77 ; and Kama, 93 ; Nadaraja, 171.

Skandha purana, 67.

Slavs, 10, 80.

Smartta Sutras, 25, 38.

Smiths, 9.

Smriti, 8, 25, 37, 42.

Soma (deity), 56, 72 and other gods, 85 account of, 83-87 origin of, 86 passes away, 161 hymn to, quoted, 192f.

Soma-juice, 9, 55 Indra’s fondness for it, 74, 85 described, 84 drinking ceases, 134 soma libations, 87 soma-plant, 9, 15 described, 84 soma sacrifice, 87, 112.

Sons desired, 12 prayers for, 147.

Sorcery in Atharva-veda, 30 v. Magic.

Speech, see Vach.

Spells, house-breakers, 321. ,, against evil spirits, 232. ,, ,, rival wife, 234 against evil dreams, 235.

sphya, 111.

Sraddha (Devotion), 52, 90 mother of Kama, 93.

Sraddha (funeral ceremonies), 98-104 i different kinds of, 102.

Srauta sacrifices, 33.

Srauta sutras, 38.

Srotriyas, oral traditionists, 43.

Sruti, 25, 42. Includes upanishads, 37. excludes sutras, 37.

Stevenson, R. L., 139.

Sudas, 40.

Sudra not to teach veda! 45 origin of, 166.

Suktas, 34.

Sulagava, ‘spitted cow’, 114.

Sun personified variously, 60.

Sunahsepa, 36; legend of, 128-9.

Sura, 8.

Sura, 192.

Susipra, 140.

Susna, 182.

Surya, the sun described, 65 hymn to, quoted, 194.

Surya, 11, 68.

Sutlej, 41.

Sutras, 37ff, 42 date, 46 on animal sacrifice, 114.

Suttee, sati, 13, 127.

Sutudri river, 223.

Svarbhanu, 225f.

T

Taksh, 245.

Taittiriyans, 28.

Taittirlya-brahmana, 49, 113, 114-7, 119, 252.

Taittiriya-samhita, 33.

Taittirlya upanishad, 37.

Talavakara-brahmana, 49.

Tamils, 5, 6, 78, 148.

Tandya brahmana, 116.

Tanners, 9.

Tantra, 133, 164, 169.

Tapas (penance), 55.

Telugu, 6.

Teutons, 10, 121.

Three Vedas, 33.

Tiruvasagam quoted, 77.

Tools, 9.

Trayi-vidya, 33.

Trichinopoly, 122.

Trimurti, 52, 68, 78.

Trita, 230.

Tukarama, 148, 170.

Tulsidas, 170.

Tvastri, 72 account of, 94.

U

UDGATA, 117.

Udgdtri, 27 chanted Samani, 87, 109.

Universe, origin of, hymn, 205ff.

Upanishads, 21, 25, 35 defined, 36 earliest, 37 in Sruti, 37, 165, 170 monism of, 52, 61, 134, 158, 161.

Upa-puranas, 25.

Urvasi, 95.

Ushas, 16 mother of the gods, 55 and Surya, 65 account of, 69, 90 hymns to, quoted, 202ff.

Uttara Rama Charitra, 8.

V

Vach ‘mother of Vedas’, 39, 90, 91.

Vaikarta butcher priest, 108.

Vaivasvata, 235.

Vaishnava, 124.

Vats’vanara, 241.

Vaisya, 166.

Vajapeya, 115.

Vajasaneyins, 28.

Vala, a demon, 92.

Vallabhacharya, 124.

Vamadeva, 41 lord of Indra, 163.

Valmiki, 8.

Vamana avatara, 69.

Varuna and Indra, 52 moral excellence of, 57, 63, 159 account of, 63 and Mitra, 65 and legend of Sunahsepa, 128-9 passes away, 135, 161 hymns to, quoted, 129, 150, 195ff.

Varunani, 90.

Varutri, 185 n.

Vasista, 8, 40, 41, 152.

Vastospati, 231.

Vasudeva, 137.

Vata, 72.

Vatapi, 231.

Vayu described, 72 hymn to, quoted, 199.

Veda defined, 25, 42.

Vedas, 21ff names of, 26 relation of, 27 traditional origin of, 38ff, 166, 244ff compilation of, 40 composition of, 41 editions, 42 oral transmission, 43, 44 not to be written or learned of a sudra, 45 number of hymns, 45 date of Vedas, 45 chronological table of Vedic literature, 48 metres of, 259f analysis of, 266ff language of, 265.

Vedangas, 25 ; Described, 37, 38, 42.

Vedanta, 35, 61, 161, see upanishads.

Vedic gods v. Gods.

Vedic metres, 259f.

Veppa maratti karupppan, 78.

Vibhidaka tree, 15.

Vijayanagara, 22.

Vipas river, 223.

Viraj, 165.

Viramatti, 103.

Visakha, 116.

Vishnu, 52 in Harihara, 55 discus of, 66 described, 68-69 and Indra, 74 rise of, 135 hymn to, quoted, 200.

Vishnu purana, 257.

Vishnusmriti, 13.

Vispala, 71.

Visva, 93.

Visvadevyat, 66.

Visvakarman, 66, 95, 207.

Visvamitra, 8, 41, 131, 225.

VisVariipa, 94.

VisVedevas, 55, 93 hymn to, quoted, 201f.

Vivasvat (sun), 87.

Vizianagaram, Maharaja of, 22.

Vritra, demon of drought, 73, 80, 86, 96, 145, 230.

Vulcan, 94.

W

WARFARE, 17.

Weapons, 17, 98, 228.

Weapon-song, 17.

Weaving, 9.

Weber, A., 23 on Atharva-veda, 32.

Whitney, 23 on Atharva-veda, 32 on Soma, 84.

Widow, 12 might remarry, 12 widow-burning, 13 how justified, 12.

Wife, position of, 10, 11, 157 not a child, 11, 157 rival wives, 234.

Whip, 229.

Wilkins, Charles, 20.

Wilson, H. H., 23.

Wolf, 189 n.

Woman (see Marriage, Wife) position of, 13, 157 and Vedas, 14.

Woriur, 122.

Writing in India, 42.

Y

Yajunshi, 26.

Yajur-veda analysis of, 272 editions and translations, 23ff ‘White’ and ‘Black’, 28, 33 used by adhvaryu priests, 109 on animal sacrifices, 113-8 on horse sacrifice, 119ff on human sacrifice, 131ff exalts power of Brahman’s knowledge, 163 reading from, 238.

Yama, 66 described, 87 and ancestors, 99-103 hymn to, quoted, 231, 235 dogs of, 231.

YamI, 66 described, 87.

Yamuna River, 4.

Yaska’s Nirukta, 57.

Yatudhanas, 232.

Yudhistira, 119.

Yuga, 38.

Yupa, 98, 110.

Z

ZEND, 3.

Zoroaster, 3.

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Footnotes